The myth of Prometheus has been changed and rewritten over the millennia to fit viewpoints on the society and human condition of the time. Myths can be seen as representations or explanations of contemporary society. When looking at Hesiod’s portrayal of Pandora and women in Theogony and Works and Days we can learn that he was writing in a male dominated society where women were nowhere near equal to their husbands. This is in contrast to Aeschylus’ account of Prometheus where Pandora isn’t mentioned at all. Aeschylus focuses more on the advantages that Prometheus brought mankind, reflecting Athens’ technological, philosophical and political progress in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. In early 16th century Europe, at the height of religious reformation; Andreo Alciato’s use of Prometheus can be seen as a warning of the perils of questioning the religious order, Olympian or Catholic. In the 19th century, British Romantic poets found yet another interpretation of Prometheus as they tried to make sense of the promises and failures of the of the French Revolution. Finally my modern account of Prometheus aimed to give a reflection of some of the problems of the 21st century that I felt Prometheus could communicate.
In Theogany and Works and Days Hesiod focuses on the fall of men from the Golden Age and the division between men and gods. He sets Prometheus as directly responsible for the separation of men from the plentiful life of the gods and the life of suffering that is brought about. This trickster figure of Prometheus changes the world to what it is, not what people think it should be; in this way Hesiod’s account is very pessimistic and looks back on times when life was easier. Prometheus’ actions reinforce the conventions and practices of archaic Greek culture with particular attention to boundaries between mortals and gods and between men and women. . The theft of fire by Prometheus is linked with the moment that men were separated from the gods, at the sacrifice at Mekone; as this began the process of separation. The separation of men is compounded by the need to work for food, another consequence of Prometheus’ actions. This is a contrast with the bountiful, carefree life of the gods; Hesiod sees it as a decline for humanity that they no longer live like this. Men are left to be hungry or to work hard to uncover the produce that the earth contains via farming.
The theme of hunger is continued with the creation of Pandora. Pandora, as a representation of women, is like the fire that Prometheus stole, always hungry and in need of feeding. This links with the agricultural theme; the belly of the women is similar to the earth in that both can provide life but the seeds (of man and grain) must be hidden for them to bear fruit. The link is continued with Pandora’s jar, reference to the jars used to store agricultural produce; such jars wouldn’t have been necessary before Prometheus because there was no need for storage. Hesiod’s account is vastly misogynistic; women are portrayed to be idle with no mention to their contributions to the house or society. The creation of women as a punishment justifies the contemporary gender inequalities and when a myth is retold as much as this one then it embeds and legitimizes that thought process. Hesiod gives an indication that women played little part in society and but may have more authority at home as a supervisor rather than worker. He also signifies an expectance or need for marriage with his descriptions of the perils of married or single life from a male perspective. It shows his male dominated focus that there is no mention of single women in the text. Hesiod’s negative focus on the fall of man is in stark contrast with Aeschylus’ portrayal of Prometheus influenced by better, more prosperous times.
When Aeschylus wrote Prometheus Bound Prometheus became a figure of political rebellion and progress for humanity. Prometheus was a rebel fighting the tyranny of Zeus’ reign to protect humans. At the time Aeschylus was alive the Persians had been driven out of Greece, the Cleisthenic Reforms laid the foundations for democracy and Athens became an imperial power. It is because of this that Prometheus Bound focuses on the progress of man in the face of Zeus’ oppressive rule. Athenian tragedy being critical of tyrannical regimes is a common trait and here Aeschylus gave Zeus the tools needed to be a tyrant. At the beginning of the play, Kratos (Might) and Bia (Force) act as his enforcers as they chain Prometheus to the rock; they maintain his rule by violence and punishment. By mentioning Zeus’ punishment of Io, Zeus is made out to be prone to violence and a belief that he is above the law. This mirrors the tyrants that Athens would have known and revels in the fact that they aren’t in power now and celebrates the infant Athenian democracy. It is with this upwards looking perspective that Aeschylus omits the sacrifice at Mekone; when Hesiod focused on it as the moment men fell from the level of gods. Aeschylus shows how with fire from Prometheus man has accomplished a lot, technology, medicine and metal working, for example. Given the optimism and hope Athens had for the future it is understandable that the centre of attention would be on man’s achievements with Prometheus’ gift. Instead of looking at a fall from the gods it looks at how fire raised man from animals. Men could cook meat, predict the future, grow crops and heal wounds. His fire is a metaphor for the skills man possesses to control the land and be successful.
However rebellion and forward thinking would not always be the message that Prometheus would convey. In the face of religious reformation across Europe the myth of Prometheus was used as an example of what happened to previous men who questioned religious authority. In 1531, Milanese lawyer, Andrea Alciato wrote Emblematum liber; a collection of sayings, pictures and verses that combined to give a moral or symbolic meaning. Alciato used the Prometheus myth with the translated title “What is above us is nothing to us”. From the beginning Alciato is telling the reader to not question or concern oneself with what is above you; in this case the practices of the Catholic Church. The image is of Prometheus lying on the ground with an eagle perched on his middle, pecking at a gaping wound in his abdomen. The verse initially tells us the Prometheus “hangs for all eternity” having his liver “shredded by the talon of the sacred winged one”. In the context of 16th century Europe this sacred winged one is less likely to mean a divine eagle but more likely a devil in the area of Hell reserved for heretics. It is interesting that despite Hesiod and Aeschylus releasing Prometheus, according to this source Prometheus is still there; it offers no hope of redemption for a heretic.
Prometheus could be seen as a representation of a reform minded man who spreads the ideas of reformers like Luther. When the verse says he “might rather not have created man” it is refereeing to the belief that Prometheus created men out of clay but also to the reforming ideas that have led him to this horrific punishment. In other translations the next line makes reference to Prometheus detesting the “moulders of clay”, the men who continue to spread the radical ideas and cursing the “torch lit from stolen fire”; the illegal ideas that caught on across large stretches of Europe. If a contemporary reader was not well versed in the classics the initial metaphors may have been lost on them but the last lines are particularly poignant; as if Alciato wanted to leave no room for misinterpretation; “The breasts of wise men are gnawed by diverse cares – those wise men who feign to know the ways of heaven and of the gods”. There is no mistaking his intention with this line; it is a direct warning to those who claimed to know how God wanted to be worshiped. Part of Lutheran doctrine was focused on people worshiping God directly, not through a priest. Alciato is speaking plainly to men who believed they knew more than the Papacy. It is a fairly direct warning against heresy in a time where Henry VIII was pushing his first religious reforms through Parliament. Alciato’s defence of the Church is understandable; he was Italian and even though Luther’s ideas were discussed in Italy they never became popular. It is interesting that in this account of Prometheus he is no longer a rebel, spurring on the uprising but a defeated figure, being used as a warning to others not to follow the same path.
Less than four centuries later Prometheus was being used in the setting of a rebellious character against an oppressive leader once more. After the collapse of the ideals that fuelled the French Revolution; British Romantic poets like Shelley and Byron turned to Prometheus to enable them to make sense of the political climate. Prometheus enabled them to view and analyse the relationship between those in power, their challengers and the masses under that control. They saw Prometheus’ theft of fire as a symbol of mankind endeavouring to gain political power and self-rule. The influence of Aeschylus is obvious in the work of Shelley and Byron as they reflected on the horrors of the Terror and Napoleonic despotism as well as making clear the perils of the Ancien Regime. It has been suggested that Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound, written in 1818-19, was written about the fine line between rebel, liberator and tyrant with Napoleon in mind. While Byron’s Prometheus makes Prometheus a rebel against the tyranny of Zeus, Shelley makes Prometheus more idealistic and trying to build a model for life without being hampered by oppressive regimes. This Prometheus was set years after the main story, allowing Prometheus to reflect on the events. Prometheus became a figure of passive struggle for a fairer society where there are no kings but all are equal, obviously mirroring the ideas behind the French Revolution (liberty, equality, fraternity). This Prometheus recognised that he was at fault, just like Zeus was. This is a recognition of the revolutionaries becoming just as bad as the regime they deposed and Shelley is urging both parties to come together to repair the damage done. Shelley sets out the idea for people to release themselves from the authority of those in control and to govern themselves. Just as Prometheus accepted blame for his part in the fight between him and Zeus, Shelley invites those in power to recant as well. Shelley implored people to realise that violence would only cause further violence and encourages everyone to break the cycle of tyranny not just remove one tyrant. This Prometheus is subtle and reflective in his striving for freedom for men.
In Prometheus Re-bound I retold Hesiod’s Prometheus in a 21st century setting. I chose not to change Hesiod’s plot or negative focus but instead used the myth as a vehicle for making sense of today’s economic problems and media culture. The story is set in Hesiod’s view that mankind is declining from the level of the gods, this parallels with the economic decline from the “boom” years of the last decade. The account revolves around a power struggle in a multinational bank, it shows the god-like power of the world’s economic institutions that the only metaphor for the Olympian gods I felt I could use was a bank. It also shows the blame that society has for the banks that a bank and two of its chief employees are the cause of the problems for the world. The equivalent for the choice at the sacrifice at Mekone is a choice between investing in two different energy companies. One is an oil company the other is a source of green technology. When Zacharias makes his choice without considering the options properly he has done so to get favourable media coverage; not looking at the returns on the investment or even if it is a possible energy source. He is choosing between energy sources as energy is a major concern for today’s world. Finding and harnessing a source of energy is like searching for a god; we are as dependant on energy as a Greek person centuries ago was dependent on their gods. The difference is that we don’t respect our energy resources; we deplete them always sure that we will find another one, the Greeks were more respectful of their gods. Maybe when energy resources are diminished we will be more careful and reverential to the energy supplies we have so that they are not wasted, we will treat them like an Olympian god that should not have its time wasted for fear of the consequences.
The media is a major theme in this account. Zacharias makes the wrong choice for fear of what the press will say about him if he chooses to invest in oil, the media also transport the evil of Paloma across the globe. In today’s world politicians and CEO’s are more afraid of the reaction of the press not their electorate or customers because the coverage in the media influences how people think. When the press spread the images of Paloma across the world women looked at the life of Paloma and they wanted the same; they started to act and dress like her, they wanted her life. It is a major concern for today’s society how women are influenced by what they see in magazines, for example. With airbrushing and manipulation of photographs thousands of men and women across the globe have an unrealistic view of life and strive to reach unattainable goals of beauty that doesn’t exist, aside from in the publication they are looking at. I chose Paloma’s evil to be spread this way as the media already transports a kind of evil like this. Look at the thousands of women who see Jordan and Jodie Marsh in the papers and decide to get breast enhancements and become famous by wearing as little clothing as possible. These negative role models of today are exactly like Paloma in this way, spreading a false image of life that causes negativity as it can never be achieved. This Prometheus (Pierce) is part of a negative view of the world as today there is a more negative focus in people’s minds and the media. There is always something lacking from people’s lives; be it the newest electrical must-have or in the world’s poorer areas simply food. We are a hungry world and using Hesiod’s account of Prometheus seemed the best way to reflect on this.
Prometheus has changed a lot in the last 2800 years or so. He has been a defiant rebel, an aid to progress, a mutineer with regrets either being used as an example or reflecting and trying to repair the damage he in part caused or a rebel again who only makes matters worse. Prometheus has been selfish, a benefactor, a creator and one who challenged the order of the gods. The many different guises of Prometheus reflect that the societies that read and thought about this myth faced different problems and a story like this is a useful conceptual tool to try and understand these problems. When using an analogy like this to reflect on society it is useful to use a myth like this as it is a well known tale therefore the changes made easily show the point the author tries to communicate. It gives us a way of comparing the societies behind the myth by changing the differing actions and fates of Prometheus.
Bibliography
Classical Mythology: A Very Short Introduction
Helen Morales
Oxford, OUP, 2007
Theogony, Works and Days
Hesiod
trans. M.L. West
Oxford, OUP, 1999
Prometheus
Dougherty, Carol
Routledge 2006
Prometheus Bound
Aeschylus
Trans. H. Weir Smyth, 1926
"Emblem Books"
Susan Drain The Oxford Encyclopedia of Children's Literature.
Edited by Jack Zipes. Oxford University Press 2006
5 December 2010
"emblem book"
The Oxford Companion to English Literature.
Edited by Dinah Birch.
Oxford University Press.
5 December 2010
Emblematum liber
Andrea Alciato
First published 1561, Augsburg
No comments:
Post a Comment